Binary
Electrons, Electrons, Atoms, Electricity, Electromagnetic Waves, Light,
Gravity, Magnetism, Universal Force.
Binary Electrons
This
essay explores the possibility that the relationship between electricity,
electromagnetic waves, magnetism and gravity can be explained by the behaviour
of two particles.
It
is generally agreed that all materials are composed of atoms and that each
individual atom has a central core (or nucleus) of one or more protons around
which a corresponding number of electrons rotate. An atom of copper for example
has a nucleus of 29 protons around which 29 electrons rotate in four distinct
shells. An atom is often likened to a diminutive solar system with the nucleus
representing the sun and the electrons representing the planets. The nucleus of
an atom is 1800 times more massive than the combined mass of the electrons,
which orbit around it. The sun is 2000 times more massive than the combined
mass of the planets, which surround it.
It
may be noticed that the combined mass of all of the planets in the solar system
is remarkably similar to the combined mass of all electrons within the body of
the sun.
The
distances between the nucleus of an atom and the electrons which orbit around
it is similar in relative terms to the distances between the sun and the
planets, which orbit around the sun but on a microscopic scale. Just as in the
universe a few tiny planets revolve around the sun in a huge volume of space,
even in the densest of matter (such as solid metal) electrons revolve around atomic nuclei
in relatively large volumes of space.
To
provide a sense of scale it has been calculated that a particle of copper the
size of a pinhead contains 1018[.1] (ten
billion billion) atoms. The mass of a single electron has been calculated to be
9x10-28 (nought point twenty seven noughts nine) of a gram.
When
an electric charge is applied to a conductor free electrons in the outer shell
of one atom are transferred to the outer shell of another atom at a speed
approaching the speed of light (almost 300 million metres per second).
Electricity can be defined as a stream of electrons transferred in this way
through a conductor such as copper wire. This form of energy requires a stream
of particles each less than one billion billionth the size of a pinhead to
travel through solid metal such as copper wire at a speed approaching the speed
of light (that is some 400,000 times faster than a jet fighter).
When
a lamp is switched on electricity is readily converted into light. Similarly
when a radio transmitter is activated electrical energy is converted into a
radio signal. Both light and radio waves as well as gamma rays and x-rays are
electromagnetic waves. The difference between these waves is measured only in
terms of wavelength and frequency. All travel through space at the speed of
light. The length of an electromagnetic wave is normally measured in metres and
its frequency measured in hertz (cycles per second). The product of the
wavelength (L) and the frequency (Hz) of any electromagnetic wave is the speed
of light (C).
(For
those who are interested, the frequency of any electromagnetic wave can be
found by dividing the speed of light by the length of the wave. For example a
radio signal with a wavelength of 1500 metres will have a frequency of
(300,000,000 metres per second divided by 1,500 metres) 200,000 hertz. For those who wish to be
more accurate the actual speed of light has been calculated to be 299,792,458
metres per second).
The
conversion of electricity into electromagnetic waves is not fully understood.
Some believe that electrical energy (which can be explained by the physical
movement of electrons from atom to atom in a solid conductor) is converted
instantly at the point of transmission (in for example a lamp or radio transmitter) into pure
energy with no material form. Others envisage electromagnetic waves as a stream
of photons or as a sine wave travelling through space.
This
thesis begins by exploring the possibility that an electron rather than being a
single particle is a system of two particles and that electrical and
electromagnetic energy differ only in terms of the relationship between these
two particles.
It
is proposed that electrons comprise a small particle (B) which orbits around a
large particle (A) as the system of two particles (a binary electron) transfers
from atom to atom as electricity or passes through space as an electromagnetic
wave. It is assumed that binary electrons have a frequency equivalent to the
frequency of rotation of the small particle and a wavelength equivalent to the
diameter of orbit of the small particle.
At
the point of transmission from a solid conductor into space (as in for example
the conversion of electricity into light in a lamp) the relationship between
the two particles which comprise a binary electron simply changes from a form
recognised as electricity to a form recognised as an electromagnetic wave (in
this example visible light).
In
order to satisfy established energy equations the combined mass and the total
energy of the two particles which comprise a binary electron must be the same
as an electron when regarded as a single particle.
Energy
(E) can be defined as mass (m) multiplied by velocity (v) squared (E= mv2).
Then since an electron is assumed to travel at the speed of light (C) E=mC2.
In
a binary electron it is assumed for the purposes of calculation that the large
particle travels in a straight line at the speed of light. If the small
particle completes one orbit of the large particle as the large particle
traverses the diameter of that orbit then the small particle must travel at an
average speed of (3.14159 x C) or approximately 942,000,000 metres per second.
The actual speed of the small particle will vary to some extent where it
assumes an elliptical orbit.
In
order to satisfy the energy equation for two particles the total energy of a
binary electron must be half the mass of the large particle (A) multiplied by
its velocity squared plus half the mass of the small particle (B) multiplied by
its velocity squared.
Calculations
show that if the large particle is 89% of the mass of an electron and the small particle is 11% of the mass of an electron the equation balances. Further calculation then shows that
the mass of particle A is approximately 8 x 10-28 grams and the mass
of particle B approximately 1 x 10-28 grams.
An
electromagnetic wave of any given frequency and wavelength can be envisaged as
the behaviour of the two particles which comprise a binary electron. For
example a radio signal with a wavelength of 1500 metres and a frequency of 200
kHz will comprise a large particle with mass 8 x 10-28 grams
travelling in a straight (or slightly waveform) line at the speed of light
around which a small particle having a mass of 1 x 10-28 grams
completes one generally circular orbit measuring 1500 metres in diameter
200,000 times per second.
Although
the small particle describes a generally circular orbit around the large
particle, in reality it is almost certain that the two particles will interact
to some extent. The small orbiting particle may assume an elliptical path when
close to a large mass. The large particle under the influence of the small
particle may assume a slightly waveform path. (This may explain the idea of an
electromagnetic wave moving through space in the form of a sine wave.)
In
a conventional radio transmitter electricity is passed through various devises
including oscillators, modulators and amplifiers in order to transmit a complex
message such as speech or music. A
signal of the required frequency is generated by a oscillator, amplified then
passed through a conductor such as a copper wire to an aerial where the signal
is transmitted into space. In space it travels in a straight line until it
encounters an object or force which deflects, reflects or absorbs it. A
receiving aerial is designed (or tuned) to receive a signal of a particular
frequency. The ideal length of a receiving aerial is half the wavelength of the
transmitted signal. This corresponds to the radius of orbit (potential
difference) of the small particle of binary electrons of the required
frequency. The polarisation of the aerial corresponds to the plane of orbit of
the small particle of binary electrons of the required polarisation. In this
way the aerial is designed to select electromagnetic waves of the required
polarisation and wavelength from the thousands of other transmissions which
crowd the airways.
Once
it has been accepted that electricity and electromagnetic waves are both
streams of binary electrons but in different forms, the transmission and
reception of electromagnetic waves may be seen in a new way.
When
subjected to an electrical charge, an electron which would otherwise remain in
captive orbit around the nucleus of a single atom in the circuit of a radio
transmitter it has the ability to escape from atomic orbit and travel from atom
to atom in the form of electricity. The small particle of electron continues to
orbit around the large particle of the electron as it passes through the
conductor (for example a solid copper wire) at close to the speed of light.
The
diameter (wavelength) of the orbit of the small particle depends on the amount
of energy that the electron has received. In a radio transmitter the diameter
of orbit (wavelength) of small particles is adjusted (tuned) to the required
diameter before transmission. The diameter of orbit may range from less than a
millionth of a millimetre (if an ultra short wave such as an x-ray is
generated) to several thousand metres (if a long for radio signal is
generated). At the point of transmission electrons of the required frequency
are boosted to the speed of light to escape entirely from atomic orbit and to
travel through space in the form of electromagnetic waves.
Of
the billions of electrons transmitted only a few are absorbed by a receiving
aerial where they again travel through a conductor in the form of electricity before
being amplified then converted to a useful signal (such as sound).
Energy and Frequency
All
free binary electrons have the same mass (9x10-28 grams) and travel
through space at the same velocity (300 million metres per second). Using the
formula E=mC2 it can be shown that all free binary electrons
(electromagnetic waves) have the same amount of kinetic energy when travelling through space yet may display very
different characteristics when in collision with matter. Whereas medium or low
frequency electromagnetic waves such as radio waves or visible light are
readily reflected by for example aluminium foil, very high frequency
electromagnetic waves such as x-rays will penetrate steel plate. In general
high frequency binary electrons have greater ability to penetrate matter than
low frequency binary electrons.
The
ability of very high frequency binary electrons to penetrate dense matter may
be explained partly by the extremely small diameter (wavelength) of the orbit
of the small particle. Gamma rays have small particle orbit diameters as small
as 10-14 metres (one hundred billionth of a millimetre) enabling
both components of the binary electron to penetrate matter at an atomic scale.
In
addition to the particularly small diameter of very high frequency binary
electrons they may also possess more potential
energy than low frequency binary electrons. It would seem that any energy given
to a binary electron at the point of transmission in excess of the (uniform)
amount of kinetic energy required to escape from atomic orbit is stored in a
binary electron as potential energy in the form of a reduced orbit diameter of
the small particle. It would appear that very high frequency binary electrons
such as gamma rays and x-rays absorb more energy at the point of transmission
and have small particles with correspondingly small diameters of orbit. In this
way the amount of energy transferred to a binary electron at the point of
transmission determines its frequency.
This
store of (potential) energy (which can be compared to the tensioning of a clock
spring) may be released slowly as the electromagnetic wave degenerates into a
wave of lower frequency or released instantaneously on impact with dense
matter. This release of energy may account for the destructive effect of very
high frequency electromagnetic waves such as x-rays and gamma rays when in
collision with matter.
Binary Electrons in Captive
Orbit
So
far we have dealt only with electrons which have sufficient energy to escape
from atomic orbit. The overwhelming majority of electrons in the universe
remain in captive orbit around the atomic nuclei with which they are
associated.
A
captive electron has less energy than a free electron and therefore the orbit
of the small particle is larger than that of a free electron. The orbit of the
small particle of a captive electron may extend well beyond the atom with which
it is associated and by so doing exerts a tiny attractive force that encourages
atoms to form into clusters. As the cluster of atoms increases in number the
cumulative attractive force of the small particles of captive electrons
increases proportionately and will attract ever greater masses.
The
small particles of incalculable numbers of very long wavelength (captive)
electrons at the surface of the Earth loop deep into space each exerting a tiny
attractive force. In such profusion they exert sufficient force to draw matter
towards the earth. This force is known as gravity.
Gravity
At
the outermost limits of the ionosphere which extends some one thousand kilometres
above the surface of the earth individual atoms are held in position by the
gravitational effect of binary electrons with frequencies of or above 150 hertz
(that is with small particle orbit diameters of 2000 kilometres or more) held
captive by atoms at the surface of the earth.
The
orbit of the small particle of a binary electron with a frequency of 0.3Hz at
the earth’s surface is large enough to encompass the moon. The combined
attractive force of incalculable numbers of very low frequency binary electrons
at the earth’s surface (acting in unison with very low frequency binary
electrons at the surfaces of the sun and moon) exert sufficient force to hold
the moon in orbit.
The
sun, which is 330,000 times more massive than the earth, exerts enormous
gravitational force. The orbit of the small particle of a binary electron with
a frequency of 0.001Hz at the surface of the sun will encompass the earth.
Colossal numbers of binary electrons within the suns mass exert sufficient
influence to hold the earth in orbit.
(Those who take an interest in calculation
will notice that the moon is approximately one eightieth of the mass of the
earth and therefore too massive to be held in orbit by the earth acting alone.
It should be remembered that the moon like the earth is held in solar orbit.
The gravitational influence of the earth serves only to modify the shape of the
lunar orbit from a simple independent solar orbit to the more complex shape of
a planetary satellite).
Binary
electrons with frequencies as low as 0.000025Hz at the surface of the sun have
just enough influence to hold the remote planet Pluto in orbit. At some point
beyond the orbit of Pluto (which has an average orbit of 5.8 billion kilometres
from the sun) the small particles of binary electrons, whose large particle
remains at the surface of the sun, have insufficient influence to hold matter
within the solar system.
It
has already been noted (see Atoms above)
that the combined mass of all the planets in the solar system is closely
related to the total mass of electrons within the body of the sun. From this it
can be inferred that it requires some 1800 binary electrons within the body of
the sun to hold one atom in orbit. This appears to be the factor which
determines the quantity of matter which can be held in solar orbit. The total
mass of matter which can be held in solar orbit cannot exceed the total mass of
electrons associated with atoms which form the body of the sun.
Gravity and Light
Streams
of high energy binary electrons (including gamma rays and x-rays) continuously
radiated from the sun deliver energy to the planets. On contact with planetary
mass a binary electron will lose energy. The frequency of orbit of the small
particle of the electron is reduced and the diameter of its orbit (wavelength)
increased. Energy arriving from the sun in the form of high frequency binary
electrons (gamma rays and x-rays) may be radiated back into space from the
planet in the form of lower frequency binary electrons (such as infra red) or
absorbed by planetary mass. Binary electrons absorbed by planetary mass will
continue to lose energy until they degenerate into ultra long wave binary
electrons (gravity). Binary electrons transform naturally from an
electromagnetic form to a gravitational form. Gravity is a form of light.
Magnetism
It
has been known since early in the nineteenth century that an electrical current
produces a magnetic field. An electrical current passing through a wire
produces a (generally circular) magnetic field perpendicular to the direction
of flow of the current.
The
orbit of the large particle of an electron around the nucleus of an atom is the
smallest possible electrical current. The orbit of the small particle of the
electron produces a tiny magnetic field.
In
non-magnetic materials the alignment of this tiny magnetic field is random. In
magnetic materials the fields are (or can be) aligned to produce strong fields
of magnetic influence concentrated at the extremities or poles of the material.
The closely looped lines of the magnetic field at the ends (poles) of a
permanent magnet indicates the presence of a concentration of orbits of small
particles of electrons which have detached themselves from the nuclei with
which they would normally be associated to congregate at the extremities of the
magnetic material.
The
concentration of magnetic field at the ends of a permanent magnet is of
particular interest. If the looping lines of force at the ends of a magnet
indicate the presence of an unusual concentration of orbiting small particles
then it is probable that normally captive electrons in magnetic materials (and
perhaps to a lesser degree in other materials) have the ability to migrate
towards the surface of matter.
The
ability of electrons to detach themselves from the nuclei with which they are
normally associated has wide ranging implications.
On
a small scale this phenomenon accounts for the increased electrical, magnetic
and chemical activity seen at the surface of many materials. On a large scale
the spectacular activity displayed at the surface of the sun (and the intense
radiation which results from this activity) is fuelled by the constant
migration of electrons from the centre of mass.
When
atoms at the centre of mass are deprived of electrons by migration to the surface
the nuclei which remain consolidate to form dense matter (thought to exist at
the centre of massive objects in space) and thereby increase the probability of
nuclear reaction.
A Universal Force
It
would seem then that electricity, electromagnetic waves (including visible
light), gravity and magnetism are simply differing manifestations of binary
electrons. Binary electrons are the means by which energy is stored and
transmitted throughout the universe.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The
electromagnetic spectrum as presently defined ranges from gamma rays with
frequencies as high as 1023 (ten thousand trillion) cycles per
second, through x-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared
radiation and radio waves ranging from ultra short wave to extremely long waves
with frequencies as low as ten cycles per second.
If
binary electrons do in fact degenerate naturally from an electromagnetic to a
gravitational form then the electromagnetic table can be extended to include
electrical and magnetic fields and a wide range of gravity waves with
frequencies as low a 10-5 (one hundred thousandth of a cycle per
second) and wavelengths greater than ten billion kilometres.
The
complete spectrum includes full range of binary electrons from the highest
frequency free electrons to lowest frequency captive electrons and embodies all
known forms of kinetic and potential energy.
Potential and Kinetic Energy
It
has already been explained that a binary electron (in the form of an
electromagnetic wave) will travel through space in a straight line until it
collides with another atom. During such an impact energy will be transferred
from the binary electron in free flight to binary electrons in captive orbit. A
very high frequency binary electron (such as an x-ray) may displace several
binary electrons from captive orbit. High frequency impacts of this sort will
create secondary radiation.
A
binary electron with very little remaining energy when in collision with an
atom may be captured by that atom and return to captive orbit. If when captured
the binary electron continues to lose energy the orbit of the small particle
will continue to increase in diameter creating an ever larger sphere of
influence around the atom with which it has become associated. It is this large
low energy field which draws atoms together. Over a period of time the
continuous conglomeration of atoms will form a large sphere of matter in space
bound together by very low frequency binary electrons. Stars (and planets) are
slowly formed in this way from dust and gas in space.
Although
the (potential) energy stored by individual captive binary electron is
extremely small they exist in great profusion in a large sphere of matter (such
as a planet) and represent a huge reservoir of energy.
In
space a sphere of matter may continue to grow (perhaps for hundreds of millions
of years) until it develops irresistible gravitational force (a black hole). It
will then attract and absorb all passing matter, including high frequency
binary electrons, which enter its sphere of influence. Eventually the sphere
may become so dense that it triggers a massive nuclear explosion which
redistributes matter into space to form a new galaxy. If a chain of nuclear
reactions is triggered before critical density is achieved the sphere of matter
may burn as a star radiating high energy binary electrons into space.
In
this way energy in stored in the universe as gravity and released as
electromagnetic radiation. There exists in the universe a balance of energy.
Potential energy is stored in the form of gravity. Kinetic energy travels
through space in the form of electromagnetic radiation. Total energy =
potential energy + kinetic energy.
Universal Equilibrium
The
ability of binary electrons to change wavelength as they gain or lose energy
has another and perhaps more important implication.
It
is at present widely believed that the universe was created some thousands of
millions of years ago during a single massive explosion (the big bang) and that
it has continued to expand from this single point of origin ever since. The
rate of expansion of the universe is calculated from a small increase in the
wavelength of light (red shift) approaching the earth from distant sources in
space. It is generally assumed that this observed increase in wavelength is
caused by increasing distance between the observer and the source of radiation
(the Doppler effect).
The
present proposition asserts that it is virtually impossible for an
electromagnetic wave to travel through the universe for hundreds or thousands
of millions of years without passing close to or in some way being influenced
by a particle of matter. Some increase in wavelength during such a journey is
therefore inevitable and does not necessarily indicate further separation of
the light source and the observer. The universe may not be expanding as it is
presently thought to be.
It would seem that rather than simply expanding to infinity from a single point of creation the universe is continuously rearranging itself within certain bounds and without loss of matter or energy. Rather than experiencing a single big bang (which in some curiously unscientific way is thought by some to have created all matter from nothing in a fraction of a second) the universe experiences a continuous series of explosions of various magnitudes which serve to redistribute matter within certain parameters. If this is true then our understanding of the size, shape and operation of the universe must be questioned.
The Universe by Observation
In general our impression of the universe is gained by observation from the earth and its immediate environs rather than by abstract consideration. On earth observation is regard as the basis of scientific understanding. Observation of remote sources of radiation can however be very misleading.
Light
from a distant star may have taken a thousand million years to reach earth.
During that time once brilliant stars have faded. Some have risen to prominence
others have disintegrated. Nothing has remained in the same place. Even the
sequence of events as observed from the earth is confused. Because the speed of
light is constant the image of a remote event in the universe may arrive before
the image of a much nearer event. Light from a remote star may have already
passed through a part of the universe in which a later event (such as an
explosion) occurs. The image of the remote star would then arrive at the earth
before the image of the explosion. In this way a distant object may appear to
eclipse a closer object or more recent event. In this way the sequence of
images received by an observer on earth is not necessarily a true
representation of the sequence of events which have occurred in the universe.
What we see when we look at the night sky is a scrambled sequence of images of
things which have since moved, changed or ceased to exist.
An Alternative View of the
Universe
If
we cannot determine the shape of the universe by observation we certainly
cannot contemplate an arrangement which does not correspond with the millions
of detailed observations recorded by astronomers over a period of many hundreds
of years. Whatever shape is considered the universe must look exactly the same
as it always has done when viewed from earth. If the universe had expanded
uniformly in all directions from a single point of origin it would be
spherical. If on the other hand the universe had not expanded from a single
point of origin and has the ability continuously to rearranges itself without
loss of energy or matter then its shape is more difficult to define. It is
still possible that the universe may have developed into a generally spherical
arrangement but other shapes cannot be discounted.
Several
possibilities are worthy of consideration. One possible shape for the universe
is a torus. In this configuration all visible matter (and an enormous amount of
matter which cannot be seen) would stream around a common centre as if
contained within a (possibly flattened) circular tube or band. It is possible that a large mass (or some
other force able to bend light into a circle) lies at the centre of this
circular stream of matter which forms the known universe. If this were true
then the universe might from a great distance look not unlike a giant version
of Saturn.
An
observer within this universe would look into the circular stream of matter
unaware that the light, which approached him, followed a slightly curved line
(see Einstein). He would see in the far distance a concentration of light which
he assumed to be the centre of the universe. He might not have the imagination
to realise that the concentration of light was simply the focal point of light
approaching him in a very slight curve from a great distance. He would see
exactly the same objects arranged in exactly the same pattern as he had always
seen them.
As
instruments of observation improved he would see further and further around the
band of the universe until in time he would be able to look around a complete
circuit of the universe and therefore to see what existed in his own segment of
the universe tens of thousands of million of years ago. In that time, of
course, the continuous process of accumulation and distribution of matter
within the universe would have rearranged or destroyed the worlds which then
existed.
More than one universe
If
all of the energy and matter that comprises the known universe (including
visible light) were contained within a circular envelope then the observer
would of course be unable to see either the hub of the universe (if such a
thing exists) or anything that lies outside the envelope. In such a universe he
might be excused for failing to consider the possibility that an infinite
number of similar universes might exist unseen in a limitless void.
Roger
Williams
September
1996